Rome and Italy

Around 1600 in Rome, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio developed a realistic painting style with suggestive contrasts between light and darkness. Drama and emotion characterize the paintings of the lives of the saints and the stories of the Bible. The style, Caravaggism, spread from Naples and Florence to France and the Netherlands.

Throughout the century artists from the rest of Italy and Europe moved to Rome. Style ideals were contrasted with each other. A classicism based on studies of ancient art flourished, alongside accessible religious painting, sometimes relying on trompe-l’œil effects.

Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (1606–1669)

Rembrandt’s paintings reveal a constant experimentation with various techniques, exceptional skill in rendering light for symbolic effect, and a striving to capture man’s deepest emotions and motivation.

Beginning in the 1650s, he created some of his most ambitious paintings. At a time when classicist ideals of beauty were in fashion, he broke with decorum and applied thick layers of paint with his brush and palette knife. Intimate scenes where a key figure contemplates his fate took the place of dramatic events and emotions.

Rembrandt was 24 when he painted this self-portrait. It is executed on copper, a material he used for his etchings. Unusually, the artist has employed a ground of white lead covered with gold leaf, probably to impart a greater radiance to the colours. The self-portrait is painted with fine, careful brushstrokes, typical of Rembrandt’s early works, in which he was still strongly influenced by the fijnschilders (“fine painters”) of his native Leiden.

Delftware

From around 1640, the city of Delft in the Netherlands became the centre for the production of glazed earthenware – faience. Delft faience imitated the shapes and decor of imported Chinese and Japanese porcelain. Blue decor was the most common. Faience is softer than porcelain and can’t be made as thin. Where the objects are chipped, one can see the brown earthenware under the white tin glaze. Wall tiles were produced in large quantities.

The Baroque in Flanders

Flanders, in today’s Belgium, was one of Europe’s richest regions, with Antwerp as a financial and artistic centre. Several painters from the area had international careers and ran studios with students and assistants. Sometimes, specialists collaborated on different subjects in the same piece.

As the area of Flanders belonged to the Spanish-Austrian empire, there were frequent contacts with foreign courts, and Flemish art was often exported, even to Sweden. The official religion was Catholicism, and images of Mary and of saints are common motifs, unlike in Dutch painting.

Seghers, a flower painter and Jesuit, collaborated with other artists. Erasmus Quellinus II painted the stone relief with a bust of the Virgin Mary. Seghers then added the flower wreath. Quellinus left some parts untouched, but sometimes the flowers are added on top of the cartouche, such as the hyacinths in the upper part of the image. Many of the flowers are symbols of Mary, such as roses, citrus flowers, columbines, irises and carnations.

France

France was a great political power during the 17th century. Painters and sculptors were drawn to Paris, where a dynamic art scene emerged. Many of them came from the border area with the Netherlands.

French artists travelled to Rome to study the legacy of antiquity, but also to see the latest in contemporary art, such as Caravaggio’s chiaroscuro paintings. Two Frenchmen who lived in Rome achieved great international importance: Nicolas Poussin’s antique-inspired style was imitated and praised in his homeland, and Claude Lorrain showed new beauty in nature in his atmospheric landscape paintings.

The woman dressed in black is Anne, Dowager Queen of France. She is shown here with her children. When her husband, Louis XIII, died in 1643, she became regent for her eldest son, Louis XIV. The young king, who was about eight when this portrait was painted, stands at the far left. His brother, Philippe, is two years younger and still wears a child’s frock. Anne sent the portrait to Queen Christina of Sweden as a gift in 1646.

Rembrandt as a Draughtsman

Throughout his career, the Dutchman Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (1606-1669) drew composition sketches, figure studies, scenes from everyday life, portraits and landscapes. The world in all its imperfection was a constant source of inspiration.

The drawings are rarely exact models for paintings or etchings. Rembrandt documented motifs, explored ideas for new compositions, honed his technique and provided his students with models. The personal style is characteristic, where each line carries meaning, and where light and shadow are used to enhance the expression of the subject.

One of Rembrandt’s most intimate compositions depicts a young woman, possibly Hendrickje Stoffels, the artist’s partner, enjoying a moment’s rest. It is an example of Rembrandt’s later drawing style. The figure is drawn with a few powerful lines, while the paper is largely left blank in order to show the strong sunlight contrasting with the washes of the dark interior.

The Collector’s Cabinet

Following Italian examples, rooms in private houses of Antwerp were furnished with collections of art, books, musical instruments and scientific equipment that were shown to selected visitors.

Small-scale bronzes and stone sculptures reflected the interest in antiquity in humanist circles. Expensive cabinets contained art and curiosities – cameos, coins and medals, miniatures and drawings.

Paintings with allegorical, mythological and biblical themes and small-scale figures were popular. Still lifes with flowers and fruits could be enjoyed during winter when nature’s own splendour was gone.

Richly decorated cabinets (Flemish: ‘cantoor’) with many small drawers and compartments developed in the 17th century into showpieces for storage and display of documents and precious objects. Antwerp was a centre of production, which entailed collaboration between specialized craftsmen. Doors and drawers were often embellished with paintings, here with biblical scenes.

Kunstkammer – A World of Wonders

European trade, colonization and missionary activity gave rise to an increased interest in the unexplored parts of the world. Materials from distant countries, such as ostrich eggs, coconuts and nautilus shells, were turned into cups and bowls with silver mountings. Chinese porcelain was admired and copied. Amateurs practised the art of turning ivory as a pastime. Clocks and measuring instruments were appreciated for both their technology and their beauty.

Valuable art pieces and strange objects from nature – and those belonging to both categories – were preserved in the same collections.

In the seventeenth century a lot of exotic materials came to Europe from far-away continents. Artisans in Augsburg and Nuremberg were known for their skill in incorporating a variety of natural products such as ostrich eggs, coconuts, or nautilus shells into their silver objects. The desire for precious materials expresses a wonder at God’s creation as well as a will to order and control the world. For the individual collector it was also a matter of social status. Many of these new materials were associated with magical qualities such as protection or healing.

Private Devotion

Beginning in the 1300s, religious art in Western Europe reflects the development of prayer towards individual devotion. The key to spirituality is empathy – believers were invited to immerse themselves in the feelings experienced by Mary, Jesus and the saints.

People from the aristocracy and middleclass read a collection of prayers each day. Therefore, illustrated books of hours were produced. The emphasis on motion resulted in contemplative devotional images with new motifs. The image of Mary changed from heavenly queen to tender mother, the crucifixion of Christ from triumph to suffering.

The feminine ideals and virtues of the Middle Ages, such as humility, are reflected in the image of Mary breastfeeding her new-born son. An interest in nature is combined with traditional Christian symbolism – the apple of the infant Jesus refers to the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge, the fenced garden symbolizes Mary’s virginal purity as well as the lost Paradise that the Son of God recovers through his human existence.

Icons – Signs of God’s Presence

In the Christian Orthodox church, icon is the word for images of holy persons – Jesus, Mary and the saints. They are a window to the divine. One could say that the icon, and thus God, is looking at mankind. Icons can be honoured (but not worshiped) and the reverence is reflected on the original.

Icons were often painted on wood, but can be found in different sizes and materials. The painter does not create a unique image, but uses certain types, each with its own history and symbolism. Even the colours are set – red is the divine colour and blue is usually reserved for humanity; orange symbolizes eternity, and gold the divine.

Iconostasis

In Orthodox churches, the icons hang on a picture wall, called iconostasis. It separates the altar from the congregation and serves a purpose during mass. In the middle, the Gate of Heaven, leads to the altar, and it is opened during communion.

The pictures follow a precise programme and should be read horizontally but also vertically, from the Trinity to the Annunciation at the Gate of Heaven at the top. The twelve major church feasts are illustrated by a series of icons of events from the lives of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. The central theme is the resurrection of Christ celebrated at Easter.

The Silver Buffet

Large and heavy silver objects had a special status. As the metal had its own measurable value, the silver was appreciated as gifts, e.g. as gifts of diplomacy. On festive occasions, the silver was placed on a buffet designed for the display of status symbols. Although the items could be used, they were primarily intended to be admired. They were also often completely or partially gilded.

This unusually large and richly decorated ewer serves no practical purpose. There are not even hinges on the lid. During the 17th century, highly conspicuous luxury consumption became the norm among the upper classes. Ewers like this would be put on display, as a declaration of the owner’s power and wealth. The design reflects the ideals of the time, with its reliefs, gilding and cast elements, such as the figure carrying the ewer on his head.

German Silver

The German cities of Nuremberg, Augsburg and Hamburg were leading producers of silver in Europe. German goldsmiths settled in Sweden, and Swedish journeymen trained on the continent. Princes sometimes ordered items directly from the goldsmiths, but also bought them from dealers. Characteristic types of vessels in the 1600s were e.g. tall cups, large dishes with relief decor, conical beakers and tankards with lids and handles.

Although they can be filled with water or wine, ewers in the form of an equestrian statuette were primarily table decorations. This and several similar ones were made in David Schwestermüller’s workshop in Augsburg. The head of the rider was interchangeable, allowing the buyer to choose whom the ewer was to represent. The horse’s head can also be removed, for use as a drinking vessel.

Scenes of Daily Life

Dutch 17th-century painters depicted seemingly ordinary scenes of daily life in the cities and countryside. The paintings often communicate moral lessons through overtly symbolic actions and locations – a 17th-century viewer would, for example, easily have grasped the erotic subtext of Bega’s music-making couple.

The paintings mirror society. Social status is indicated by behaviour, dress, possessions and surroundings separating the classes in a fixed social order. The stereotypically immoderate behavior of peasants and beggars was seen as both amusing and reprehensible by the wealthy owners of these paintings.

This painting of a young boy playing the flute, entranced by the music, is colored by strong realism. Is this a simple scene of daily life? Or, an allegory of Hearing, one of the Five Senses? Leyster’s bravura brushwork, and the boy’s unsteady pose as he leans against the broken chair-back, contribute to the momentary quality of the image. As the most ephemeral of the arts, music was associated with lust as well as transience.

In the Great Houses

In aristocratic homes of the Baroque period, a high-ranking person had the use of a suite with an antechamber, a bedchamber and a small cabinet. The highest-ranking guests were received in the bedchamber, others usually in an antechamber. Movable woven tapestries gave the rooms a representative look and protected from draught.

The furniture was usually placed along the walls. Often there was a pair of gueridons, a kind of pedestal for candlesticks, on both sides of a console table with a mirror above. Chairs, light tables and gueridons were moved into the room as needed. Silver furniture appeared in royal residences.

High-ranking guests were received in the bedroom, and in the 17th century the bed was thus the pre-eminent piece of ceremonial furniture. The hangings, mounted on a simple wooden frame, were often luxurious. In this case, a French bed of the highest quality from about 1680, both textiles and frame are well preserved. The silk embroidery is applied to red velvet. The bed was brought to Sweden by Nils Bielke, ambassador to Louis XIV’s court.

French Design around 1700

Skilled artists from France were recruited for the decorations at the Royal Palace in Stockholm. They created several small wax sculptures that still are preserved. These serve the same purpose as a drawn sketch and is a way for the artist to try out shapes and expressions. From the small sketch, a large-scale sculpture was made, which in turn was to be used as a model for execution in a more durable material, like bronze.

Portraiture in Northern Europe

Portraits were the most common type of artwork in Northern Europe. They not only recalled a person’s appearance, but had other functions as well. Usually, they were public manifestations of the model’s standing in society. The portraits could also be diplomatic gifts or a part of marriage negotiations.

Portraits of royalty played a special role as unifying symbols for the kingdom. 17th century portraits spanned a scale from flattering idealization at one end to realism at the other. Open or hidden symbolism praised the model’s descent, character or actions.